Theoretical framework 1. Good Language Learners

A number of recent studies on language learning styles and strategies have attempted, tried to define the good language learner. During the 1970s, teachers and researchers reached conclusion that no single method of language teaching and research findings would end to the universal success in teaching a second language (Brown, 2006). It seems that learners would be successful in language learning regardless of methods or teaching techniques. In this regard, Brown (2006, p.132) says that,

“Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to succeed; other slacked those abilities”. Many observations and research studies (Rubin, 1975; Rubin & Thompson, 2009; Stern, 1975) try to describe good language learners in terms of personal

characteristics, styles, and strategies. In this regard, Rubin and Thompson (2009) believe that a good language learner possesses some of the 14 characteristics.

Good language learners (1) find their own way, take responsibility for their own learning; (2) organize information about the language and their own program of study;

(3) are creative, and try to feel the language by experimenting its grammar and words; (4) create their own opportunities to practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom; (5) learn to live with uncertainty by not getting confused and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word; (6) use memory strategies to bring back what has been learned; (7) make errors work for them and not against them (don’t stop talking for fear of errors); (8) use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of the first language, in learning a second language; (9) use contextual cues to help them in comprehension; (10) learn to make intelligent guesses; (11) learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform “beyond their competence”;

(12) learn to use certain tricks to keep conversations going; (13) learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence; (14) learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language regarding the formality of the situation.

The studies on defining the good language learner provide a basis for the understanding of what good language learners do in order to learn a second language. Finding and clarifying the strategies of successful language learners helps the teachers and researchers to teach these strategies to less successful learners. On the other hand, the methods and criteria of determining a good language learner is unclear and under question. It seems easy to classify a language learner as a good one: if he/she has developed the four basic skills and can use them successfully, he/she is considered as a good language learner. The problem is to decide about a learner who has only learned one or two of these skills. Speed of acquisition, learner’s previous exposure to English, learner’s goal, and student’s level of proficiency should be taken into account in determining the good language learner (Sewell, 2003). However, understanding and knowing the strategies and techniques t h a t good language learners use, can help them enhance learning efficiency.

2.2. Multiple intelligences

In 1989, Howard Gardner proposed the Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory with 7 types of intelligences which many teachers and educators have known. In 1996, he added an eighth intelligence called naturalist. The Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory offers teachers a way to examine and adopt the best teaching techniques and strategies in light of student’s individual differences. It also encourages educators to view learners as equals regardless of quotient produced from a traditional intelligence exam. Teachers are aware of the fact that every classroom is full of students with different areas of interest, different ways of expressing themselves, different strengths and weakness and recognize that an effective teaching and learning is to help students appreciate their strengths and

improve their weakness. Without doubt that Gardner deserves everyone’s gratitude, in particular, language teachers appreciate how well the theory applies in the language-learning process. With the help of the theory, language teachers can create activities flexible, reflective, logical, and creative for diverse students’ individual differences.

These intelligences can be clearly described as follows:

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence-The ability to use numbers effectively and reason well. Sample skills are understanding the basic properties of numbers, the principles of cause and effect, and the ability to predict.

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence-The ability to use words effectively, both orally and in writing. Sample skills are remembering information, convincing others to help, and talking about language itself.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence-The ability to sense form, space, color, line, and shape.

Sample skills include the ability to represent visual or spatial ideas graphically.

Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence-The ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings, and to solve problems. Sample skills are coordination, flexibility, speed, and balance.

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence-The ability to sense rhythm, pitch, and melody.

Sample skills are recognizing simple songs and being able to vary speed, tempo, and rhythm in simple melodies.

Interpersonal Intelligence-The ability to understand another person’s moods, feelings, motivations, and intentions. Sample skills are responding effectively to other people, problem solving, and resolving conflict.

Intrapersonal Intelligence-The ability to understand yourself, your strengths, weakness, moods, desires, and intentions. Sample skills are understanding how one is similar to or different from others, reminding oneself to do something, knowing about oneself as a language learner, and knowing how to handle ones’ feelings.

Naturalist Intelligence-The ability to recognize species of plants or animals in one’s environment.

2.3. Learning Styles

According to Gardner (1985), learning styles refer to a range of competing and contested theories that aim to account for differences in individuals' learning. These theories propose that all people can be classified according to their 'style' of learning, although the various theories present differing views on how the styles should be defined and categorized. A common concept is that individuals differ in how they learn.

Felder (2005) divides learning styles into 4 couple types: active and reflective learners;

sensing and intuitive learners; visual and reflective learners; and sequential and global learners.

Active and reflective learners: Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first. Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone. Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes.

Sensing and intuitive learners: Sensing learners tend to like learning facts; solving problems by well-established methods; be patient with details and good at memorizing facts; and dislike complication and surprise; intuitive learners often prefer innovating;

discovering possibilities and relationships; may be better at grasping new concepts; and dislike repetition.. Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors. Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes.

Visual and verbal learners: Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

Sequential and global learners: Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it." Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.

2.4. Motivation

2.4.1. Definitions of motivation

Motivation is very hard to define. As Gardner (2006, p.242) states “motivation is a very complex phenomenon with many facets (…) Thus, it is not possible to give a simple definition”. Therefore, there are many different definitions of motivation, especially in language learning.

Lightbown, Spada, Ranta, and Rand (2013) note that motivation in second language learning is quite complicate to study which can be explained in terms of two factors: learner’s communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community.

In addition, Parsons, Hinson, and Sardo-Brown (2001) define motivation as an important component or factor in the learning process. Learning and motivation have the same importance in order to achieve something. Learning makes us gain new knowledge and skills; and motivation pushes us or encourages us to go through the learning process.

Gradner (1985), in his socio-educational model, notes that motivation is perceived to be

spent studying the language and the drive of the learner. Desire indicates how much the learner wants to become proficient in the language, and affect means the learner’s emotional reactions related to language study.

2.4.2. Classification of Motivation

Brown (2006) asserts that studies of motivation of second/foreign language learners often refer to a distinction between two types of motivation namely, instrumental versus integrative motivation. Gardner (1985, p. 203) defines instrumental motivation as

"learning a language because of someone or less clearly perceived utility it might have for the learner". More specifically, a learner is instrumentally motivated when he/she wants to learn a language "to pass an examination, to use it in one's job, to use it in holiday in the country, as a change from watching television, because the educational system requires it" (Wilkins, 1972, p.184).

On the other hand, integrative motivation was defined as "learning a language because the learner wishes to identify himself with or become integrated into the society” of the target language (Gardner, 1985, p.203). Therefore, a learner is integratively motivated when he/she learns a language because he/she wants to "know more of the culture and values of the foreign language group (…) to make contact with the speakers of the languages (…) to live in the country concerned" (Wilkins, 1972, p.184).

The motivation is also classified into two main categories as the following:

Extrinsic motivation refers to a desire to get a reward and avoid punishment. It emphasizes external need to persuade the learner to take part in learning activity (Arnold, 1999), such as homework, grade, or doing something to please teachers. Both integrative and instrumental motivations are also grouped under the branch of the extrinsic motivation (Harmer, 2009).

As extrinsic motivation is based on external outcomes such as rewards and punishment. This motivation could bring a negative impact to the students, because with extrinsic motivation, students do not learn with their strong intention or will but they study it because they are pushed by the interest in the rewards or the punishment. When a student is learning because he is promised rewards or because he wants the rewards, he will be highly motivated to come to classes and learn and achieve the goal that is set for him. But when these rewards are taken away, or sometimes even if they do not see any punishment, the student will not be interested in coming to class and learn the language any longer.

Intrinsic motivation refers to learning itself having its own reward (Arnold, 1999). It means the learners are willingly and voluntarily (not compulsorily) try to learn what they think it is worth or important for them. When students have intrinsic motivation, they have the internal desire to learn and they do not have the need for external outcomes.

There are no negative impacts in having intrinsic motivation. In addition, intrinsic

motivation pushes the student to learn without rewards, because the need is innate or come from inside or depends on their own will. Lightbown et al. (2013) mention that teachers do not have many effects on students’ intrinsic motivation since the students are from different backgrounds and the only way to motivate students is by making the classroom a supportive environment.

2.5. Language Learning Strategies

2.5.1. Definition of Language Learning Strategies

In studies of good language learners, researchers mentioned lots of various behaviors that they referred to globally as strategies; some managed to describe strategies more specifically. Learning strategies have been described (Wenden and Rubin, 1987, p.19) as “any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information”. It was argued that learning strategies are intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information. Learning strategies were also illustrated as special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. Hence, learning strategies were seen as special ways of processing information that improve comprehension, learning, or retention of the information.

Whereas prior descriptions of learning strategies paid more attention to products of learning and behaviors reflecting unobservable cognitive processes, definitions eventually provided clearer understanding of what learners think and do during language learning.

Furthermore, it was stated that learning strategies are processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in actions taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language.

One of the most applicable definitions which have been cited most frequently in the literature was provided by Oxford (1990). She defines language learning strategies as

“specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford, 1990, p. 8).

It is, indeed, a reflection of what the learner intends to do and the specific actions he can take. She also, prominently, includes how context plays a crucial role in the language learning process.

2.5.2. Classification of Language Strategies

By referring to the literature, it seems that the most inclusive taxonomy of language learning strategies is provided by Oxford's (1990). Oxford divided language learning strategies into two main categories, direct and indirect strategies which are also subdivided into six classes.

Direct strategies, which involve the new language directly, are divided into Memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. As Oxford's (1990, p.37) says, “all direct

strategies require mental processing of the language”. Memory strategies entail the mental processes for storing new information in the memory and for retrieving them when needed. These strategies consist of four sets that include creating mental linkages; applying images and sounds; reviewing well; and employing action. Cognitive strategies entail conscious ways of handling the target language and fall into four sets which include practicing; receiving and sending messages; analyzing and reasoning; and creating structure for input and output. Compensation strategies enable learners to use the language either in speaking or writing despite knowledge gaps. These strategies are divided into two sets: guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing. According to Oxford's (1990), compensation strategies are employed by learners when facing a temporary breakdown in speaking or writing.

Indirect strategies include metacognitive, affective and social strategies. Indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning by employing different strategies such as focusing, arranging, evaluating, seeking opportunities, and lowering anxiety Oxford's (1990). Metacognitive strategies enable learners to control their own cognition.

They are strategies which entail overviewing and linking with material already known, paying attention, delaying speech production, organizing, setting goals and objectives, planning for a language task, looking for practice opportunities, self-monitoring and self- evaluating. Affective strategies assist students to manage their emotions, motivation, and attitudes associated with learning. They can be achieved through lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself, and taking emotional temperature. Social strategies facilitate language learning through interactions with others. Language is a form of social behavior and learning it involves other people, and it is extremely important that learners employ appropriate social strategies in this process Oxford's (1990). These strategies are divided into three sets, namely as asking questions, cooperating, and empathizing with others.

Sixty- two strategies have been illustrated which include every strategy that is referred to in previous studies conducted in language learning strategies. In fact, this effort provided a basis for an instrument, The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), designed to obtain information concerning strategy use of language learners in learning a second language as well as a foreign language (SILL version 7.0).

Even though Oxford’s classification system is defined plainly, but she highlights that the present understanding of learning strategies is still in its primary stages, and “it is only a proposal to be tested through practical classroom use and through research”

(Oxford, 1990, p. 16).