An expert system can be created using an expert system shell. Most shells have built in inference mechanisms.
However the programmer has to provide the rules and facts that the shell has to obey.break
The "Synapse" Expert System
Canada's International Development Research Center (IDRC) supported by researchers at the National University of Singapore and Total Recovery Systems International have developed an Expert System shell that captures the expertise necessary in low technology industries that depend on experience. The shell, called "Synapse" can be learned in minutes, even by users unfamiliar with computers
Users "draw" the process that they are familiar with (expert on) on screen by selecting various shapes and symbols from an extensive menu of "icons". In this way hot air blowers, thermometers, valves, etc. are represented. Next,
experience is transferred by users specifying which instruments require monitoring by the computer. In response to the system's prompts, the facts are inputed .
Currently Synapse is being tested in tea factories in Sri Lanka which have quality
and consistency problems in the processing of green tea leaves. It is envisaged that the system can be used for soap makers, cheese producers and other industries where maintaining quality control is a must. It is suitable as well, for overseeing instruments used in fisheries, agriculture, environmental monitoring, research and health care .
Bibliography
Expert Systems in Developing Countries . 1992. Edited by Charles K. Mann & Stephen R.
Ruth. Westview Press, Boulder Colorado .
Libowitz, Jay. 1988 . Introduction to Expert Systems . Mitchel publishing, Santa Cruz, California
Wentling, Tim L. & Rose Mary Wentling. 1993 . Introduction to Microcomputer Technologies . FAO, Rome .
What Is GIS?
A GIS is a computer software which combines the capabilities of:
computer mapping
tabular database management statistical analysis
spatial modelling
With a GIS you can carry out the following operations using different kinds of data (spatial and non−spatial) relating to one location:
capture store manage manipulate analyze visualize
A GIS is not simply one piece of software, running on a computer, rather it is a combination of different kinds of hardware (computers and their peripherals) and software put together for particular application in different working environments centered around GIS software.break
What Are the Applications of GIS?
The main applications of GIS include:
land use analysis
thematic mapping (eg soil type) site selection
socio−economic studies demographic analysis physical analysis
environmental management
Specific sectoral applications and examples include:
What Is GIS? 63
Agriculture: China, micro−watershed planning Education: Malaysia, poverty and transition rates Community planning: Japan, land use analysis
Health: Vietnam, changes in fertility and infant mortality Environment: Mexico, analysis of biodiversity
What Hardware and Software Makes Up a GIS System?
Until fairly recently most GIS systems were put together around powerful micro−computers or mainframes.
Nowadays (1993) systems can be put together around a PC.
Hardware and software requirements for a GIS are impossible to state because it depends on what you want to do with it and where you want to use it. What is listed here is a general statement about the kind of products
available.
Hardware products include:
computers fileservers workstations
digitizers for data capture plotters for graphic output terminals
printersbreak
Software products include:
computer operating system the GIS program
database management system
special application packages (eg network analysis, digital terrain modelling)
GIS in Watershed Management
IT Lab, Asia Technical Department of the World Bank tested the feasibility and utility of GIS techniques for supporting the development and evaluation of land
What Hardware and Software Makes Up a GIS System? 64
use development plans in small watersheds in China. It evaluated the prospects for widespread adaptation of these techniques, especially the practical utility of Digital Elevation Modelling for evaluating landscape characteristics of small watersheds .
The technology used was ARC/INFO software running on a SUN workstation.
Datasets were later downloaded to an IBM PC running PC ARC/INFO and were also converted to SPANS/GIS and Atlas−GIS (for comparative evaluation).
Chinese agricultural engineers provided field data in the form of 1:10,000 maps.
Maps and tabular input data were based on extensive field surveys and were considered to be of high quality .
GIS was shown to be a cost effective way of collating and analyzing detailed land resource data for small watersheds. Creation of digital databases was straightforward and could be completed within several days of receiving the maps. DEM provided a very effective visualization tool for three dimensional perspective views of the watershed, which were highly effective at
communicating the development opportunities and constraints present at specific sites. Tabular and graphical outputs from DEM were used to identify potential development sites, superimposition techniques helped to show how land is currently being used and overlay techniques were used to compare proposed land use against its physical characteristics .
Setting Up and Implementing
Setting up a GIS is a complicated process usually involving specialist consultants. The sequence of steps involved will vary from project to project, some steps will be carried out at the same time, some will happen in parallel and some in sequence. GIS software has been developed to supply the needs of the largest numbers of customers. This means that software may not fit exact requirements, and will need to be customized. Software tools which enable this have been developed and training is available in their use. Exactly how long a step takes and the amount of work involved will depend on the size of system to be installed, the numbers of people who will use it, the kind of applications it will be used for, etc.
What Training Is Needed?
Given the range of hardware, software and applications for GIS that specifying details of training is difficult.
Training is essential for everybody involved in using GIS and is a critical factor in the successful use of thecontinue
system. The organization employing a GIS must provide training for employees who will use the system.
different levels of training required dependent on whether employee is a 'casual' user, fulltime user or a technical support staff
GIS software vendors usually provides initial user training using its own training centers and manuals
GIS in Environmental Impact Assessment
Setting Up and Implementing 65
The IT Lab, Asia Technical Department of the World Bank tested, in Nepal, the feasibility of developing a comprehensive, geographically referenced database consisting of a number of natural resource themes. The suitability of personal computer based GIS to carry out analytical tasks was evaluated and training was provided to Nepali technicians on the use of GIS technology for
environmental impact assessments .
Land use and land capability maps derived from air photo interpretation, satellite image work were used. Technology was IBM PC running PC
ARC/INFO (GIS) software (digitizer, small plotter etc.) The total cost of the GIS component of the
impact study was about $20,000. The costs covered technician labour, GIS software, and hardware. In−service training was provided in ARC/INFO software use and database management to a technician who had a background in remote sensing and GIS. Awareness training through workshops and seminars was provided to subject matter specialists who needed to understand the strengths and limitations of GIS in order to formulate ideas for effective GIS use for different applications .
The contribution of GIS both as a planning and implementation monitoring tool was considered well worth the investment. GIS provided an excellent overview of a vast area and was immediately useful in visualizing and understanding the distribution of land use types, their characteristics and associated factors affecting each area. Query system provided with instant analytical maps of each assumption on land use. Success was mostly due to high level of commitment by staff, availability of high quality basemaps of known reliability, GIS software available on a personal computer environment (reduced user anxiety involved with larger workstations). Also low cost of PC hardware and software ensured the cost−effectiveness of the approach .
Constraints
GIS, and related technologies such as satellite remote sensing have suffered from a credibility gap because development of GIS has been pushed from a suppliers perspective of what is technically possible rather than the user's perspective of what is needed or a clear articulation of the benefits expected from GIS use. In addition to satisfying the user's perspective on needs and benefits the following have been noted as constraints to successful implementation.
1. Baseline data availability
Successful use requires significant information infrastructure to support its widespread use. Data availability can be patchy in developing countries. Few countries have made adequate investments in field surveying and mapping to warrant GIS implementation.break
2. Lack of decision making context in which to use information
In the developed world, the use of GIS is often driven by legislated reporting requirements which leave agencies with little choice but to adopt elaborate information systems for their documentation and reporting needs.
Constraints 66
3. Lack of financial commitment
Developing countries view intensive data gathering and analysis as a luxury relative to other pressing problems.
There is also a lack of financial commitment to keep datasets current and up to date, which is costly and time consuming.
4. Technical manpower constraints
Widespread use of GIS requires skills for both baseline data gathering and for GIS operations. Computer and data processing skills are poorly developed in general and few agencies can afford to have specialized GIS expertise.
The problem of manpower constraints is not limited simply to technicians but applies to planners and decision makers who do fully appreciate the value of spatial based planning approaches.break
Selected Bibliography
Geographic Information Systems for Environmental Assessment and Review . 1993.
Environmental Assessment Sourcebook Update, Number 3. World Bank .
Lai, Ponchin. 1991. "Issues Concerning the Technology Transfer of Geographic Information Systems" . Environmental Management Vol. 15, No 5, pp. 595−601. Springer−Verlag New York Inc. New York .
Morgan, G. and P. Nyborg. 1993 . Using Geographic Information Systems to support Watershed Management: Case studies from Nepal and China , ITLAB Technical Paper, GIS series no. 1