General Principles of Constitutional and Administrative Law
Fourth Edition
John Alder
Series EditorMarise Cremona Stephen Judge
BUSINESS LAW (2nd edn) Janet Dine
COMPANY LAW (4th edn) John Alder
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW (4th edn)
Ewan McKendrick
CONTRACT LAW (4th edn) Priscilla Sarton
CONVEYANCING (3rd edn) Jonathan Herring
CRIMINAL LAW (3rd edn) Debbie J. Lockton
EMPLOYMENT LAW (4th edn) Raymond Emson
EVIDENCE Kate Standley
FAMILY LAW (3rd edn) David Cowan
HOUSING LAW AND POLICY Tina Hart and Linda Fazzani
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW (2nd edn) Kate Green and Joe Cursley
LAND LAW (4th edn)
Margaret Wilkie and Godfrey Cole
LANDLORD AND TENANT LAW (4th edn) Jo Shaw
LAW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION (3rd edn) Catherine Rendell
LAW OF SUCCESSION Ian McLeod
LEGAL METHOD (4th edn) Ian McLeod
LEGAL THEORY Robert East
SOCIAL SECURITY LAW Alastair Mullis and Ken Oliphant TORTS (3rd edn)
General Principles of Constitutional and Administrative Law
Fourth Edition
John Alder
Professor of Law, University of Newcastle upon Tyne With contributions from
Michael Haley, Barry Hough, Richard Mullender
Law series editor:
Marise Cremona
Professor of European Commercial Law,
Centre for Commercial Law Studies, Queen Mary, University of London
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Preface xi
Table of Cases xiii
Table of Statutes xxxvi
Part I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1 The Nature of Constitutional Law 3
1.1 Introduction; What is a Constitution? 3
1.2 Civic Republicanism 8
1.3 Representative Democracy 10
Summary 14
Further Reading 15
Exercises 16
2 Constitutional Values 17
2.1 The Nation State, the Enlightenment and
the Social Contract 17
2.2 Incommensurables and Uncombinables 19
2.3 Hobbes: Constrained Individualism 24
2.4 Locke: Liberalism and Majoritarianism 27
2.5 Rousseau: Communitarianism 29
2.6 Hume: A Common Law Approach 32
2.7 Liberalism and Utilitarianism 32
Summary 37
Further Reading 37
Exercises 38
3 The Sources of the Constitution 39
3.1 Written and Unwritten Constitutions 39
3.2 The Common Law Constitution 44
3.3 Conventions (Barry Hough) 47
3.4 Law and Convention 54
3.5 Codification of Conventions (Barry Hough) 57 3.6 The Dignified and Efficient Constitution 58
Summary 59
Further Reading 61
Exercises 61
v
4 The Structure of the UK Government: An Overview 62
4.1 The Informal Constitution 62
4.2 Crown v. Parliament: Historical Outline 64
4.3 The Growth of the Executive 69
4.4 The Concept of the State 70
4.5 The Legislature 74
4.6 The Central Executive 75
4.7 Parliamentary Government 77
4.8 ‘Hollowed-Out’ Government 79
4.9 Ethics in Government 81
4.10 The Judiciary 83
4.11 The Privy Council 84
4.12 Citizenship 85
4.13 Constitutional Reform 88
Summary 89
Further Reading 90
Exercises 91
5 Constitutionalism: The Rule of Law and the Separation
of Powers 92
5.1 Introduction: The Nature and Purpose of the
Rule of Law 92
5.2 The Core Meaning of the Rule of Law 94
5.3 The Extended Rule of Law 95
5.4 Dicey’s Version of the Rule of Law 97
5.5 The International Rule of Law 101
5.6 Dissent and the Rule of Law 104
5.7 The Separation of Powers 105
Summary 118
Further Reading 119
Exercises 119
6 Parliamentary Supremacy 121
6.1 The Meaning of Parliamentary Supremacy 122
6.2 Historical Development 123
6.3 The Application of Parliamentary Supremacy 125 6.4 The Ingredients of an Act of Parliament 127
6.5 Dividing Parliamentary Supremacy? 129
6.6 Parliamentary Supremacy and the Rule of Law 136
6.7. Conclusion 140
6.8 Note: Delegated Legislation 140
Summary 141
Further Reading 142
Exercises 142
Part II THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
7 Federalism and Devolution 147
7.1 Introduction: Federal and Devolved Government 147
7.2 Scotland 150
7.3 Northern Ireland 154
7.4 Wales 160
7.5 The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man 162
7.6 British Overseas Territories 163
Summary 163
Further Reading 164
Exercises 164
8 Local Government 165
8.1 Local Authority Organisation and Functions 166
8.2 Structure and Powers 168
8.3 Control by Central Government 169
8.4 Internal Constitution 170
8.5 Party Politics 172
8.6 Finance 174
8.7 The Local Ombudsman 177
Summary 179
Further Reading 179
Exercises 180
9 The European Union 181
9.1 The Nature of the European Union 181
9.2 Community Institutions 184
9.3 Democracy and the European Union 192
9.4 Federalism and the European Union 194
9.5 Community Law and National Law 196
Summary 204
Further Reading 205
Exercises 205
Part III GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS
10 Parliament 209
10.1 Historical Development 209
10.2 The Meeting of Parliament 214
10.3 The Functions of Parliament 215
10.4 Parliamentary Privilege and Standards 220
Summary 232
Further Reading 234
Exercises 234
11 The Composition of Parliament and Parliamentary Elections 236
11.1 The House of Lords 236
11.2 House of Lords Reform 241
11.3 Membership of the House of Commons 243
11.4 The Electoral System 245
11.5 The Conduct of Campaigns 257
11.6 Election Disputes 262
Summary 262
Further Reading 263
Exercises 264
12 Parliamentary Procedure 265
12.1 Introduction 265
12.2 The Speaker 267
12.3 Legislative Procedure 268
12.4 Financial Procedure 275
12.5 Supervision of the Executive 279
12.6 Redress of Grievances 284
Summary 287
Further Reading 288
Exercises 288
13 The Crown 290
13.1 The Nature of the Crown 290
13.2 The Queen 292
13.3 Crown Immunities 296
13.4 The Royal Prerogative 299
Summary 308
Further Reading 309
Exercises 309
14 Ministers and Departments 311
14.1 The Prime Minister 311
14.2 The Cabinet 313
14.3 Ministers 315
14.4 Government Departments 317
14.5 Ministerial Responsibility (Barry Hough) 318
14.6 Civil Servants 329
14.7 Executive Agencies and the ‘New Management’ 334
14.8 Non-Departmental Public Bodies 337
Summary 340
Further Reading 341
Exercises 342
15 The Police and the Armed Forces 344
15.1 Introduction 344
15.2 Police Organisation and Control 344
15.3 Police Accountability 349
15.4 The Armed Forces 355
Summary 357
Further Reading 358
Exercises 358
Part IV THE CITIZEN AND THE STATE
16 Judicial Review of the Executive: The Grounds of Review 363 16.1 Introduction: Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review 363
16.2 Appeal and Review 366
16.3 Classification of the Grounds of Review 368
16.4 Illegality 369
16.5 Irrationality/Unreasonableness 382
16.6 Procedural Impropriety 386
Summary 398
Further Reading 400
Exercises 400
17 Judicial Review Remedies 403
17.1 The Range of Remedies 403
17.2 The Judicial Review Procedure 407
17.3 Choice of Procedure: Public and Private Law 411
17.4 The Exclusion of Judicial Review 414
Summary 416
Further Reading 416
Exercises 417
18 Human Rights and Civil Liberties 419
18.1 Introduction: The Bill of Rights Debate 419
18.2 The Common Law 423
18.3 The European Convention on Human Rights 427
18.4 The Human Rights Act 1998 433
18.5 Restrictions on Protected Rights: Reasoning Methods 444
Summary 454
Further Reading 455
Exercises 456
19 Freedom of Political Expression 458
19.1 Introduction: Justifications for Freedom of Expression
(with contribution by Richard Mullender) 458 19.2 The Status of Freedom of Expression 462
19.3 ‘Prior Restraint’ and Censorship 464
19.4 Public Order: Demonstrations and Meetings 474 19.5 Justices’ Powers of Prior Restraint 484
Summary 485
Further Reading 485
Exercises 485
20 Freedom of Expression and Competing Private Interests
(Richard Mullender) 489
20.1 Introduction 489
20.2 Defamation 490
20.3 Breach of Confidence 502
20.4 Invasion of Privacy 503
20.5 Tensions in the Law 507
20.6 Proportionality: a Mediating Principle 508 20.7 A Hierarchy of Rights and the Contingencies of Litigation 509
Summary 510
Further Reading 510
Exercises 512
21 Police Powers of Arrest and Search (Michael Haley) 513
21.1 Introduction 513
21.2 Violation of PACE and Codes 515
21.3 Pre-Arrest Questioning 519
21.4 Stop and Search 519
21.5 Arrest 526
21.6 Search Before and Following Arrest 532
21.7 Police Searches during the Investigation of Crime 534
21.8 ‘In the Station’: an Outline 543
Summary 544
Further Reading 545
Exercises 545
22 State Secrecy 547
22.1 Voluntary Disclosure of Information 549
22.2 Statutory Rights to Information 550
22.3 The Freedom of Information Act 2000 551 22.4 Unlawful Disclosure of Government Information 555
22.5 Public Interest Immunity 561
22.6 Security and Covert Intelligence 564
Summary 571
Further Reading 572
Exercises 572
Bibliography 574
Index 592
The aims of this edition remain the same as those of previous editions: namely, to explain and discuss critically the general principles of the constitutional law and administrative law of the UK and to identify their historical and political foundations. This edition has been recast and substantially rewritten and expanded in order to take account of major changes in the law, notably the burgeoning case law generated by the Human Rights Act 1998, and to consider recent scholarship and political developments. I have tried to make the book clearer and easier to use both as an introductory text for law degree students and as a self-contained text for more basic courses. I have also tried to emphasise difficult and controversial issues.
The law and its political foundations are constantly changing. Since the last edition in late 1999, litigants have begun to exploit the Human Rights Act 1998 in a variety of contexts. These include, for example, immigration, asylum, and prisoners’ rights, the eviction of tenants, pawnbrokers’ rights, access to adop- tion records, victims’ rights, press freedom and euthanasia. TheAlconburycase in particular involved the relationship between political decisions taken by a minister and the rule of law. It is too early to suggest any general tendencies towards a distinctively British human rights jurisprudence. On the one hand, the Strasburg case law seems to have been systematically applied and a moder- ate approach adopted. On the other hand, significant differences of approach are emerging between individual judges.
Other developments have been influenced by the ‘Nolan Principles of Public Life’ which have pervaded several areas of law, including bringing political parties within a legal regime. There have also been changes in electoral law and developments in the law of judicial review, notably in relation to the doctrines of ‘unreasonableness’ and legitimate expectations and the bias rule. There has also been important new literature including extra-judicial writings from senior judges and dealing with the influence of the common law on the constitution.
Other developments have been disappointing. The long-awaited reform of the House of Lords is unfinished business and the Wakeham Report raises concerns about the dangers to democracy of a legislative chamber which in- cludes persons hand-picked by those already in positions of power. There have been limited reforms in local government law which have to some extent strengthened local democracy although, characteristically the centre retains comprehensive powers. There have been a desultory Freedom of Informa- tion Act 2000, and increased state powers in relation to official surveillance, police investigations and public order. Some of these were a response to the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001 but go well beyond terrorism.
xi
The main standpoint of the book is that constitutional law pre-eminently concerns the management of disagreement about the exercise of power.
As Holmes J remarked, ‘the Constitution is made for people of fundamentally different views’ (Lochnerv.New York(1905), 19 US 45 at 767). Hence, in a democracy, the task of constitutional law is to provide mechanisms that prevent one set of values from being permanently dominant while at the same time trying to keep order and to adjudicate fairly between competing pre- tenders to power.
Part I has been substantially rearranged and discusses fundamental prin- ciples and concepts, including revised treatment of the rule of law to reflect developments in scholarship. In particular the introductory chapters have been recast. I have also attempted to provide an overview of the history, structure and main concepts of the UK constitution in the hope that this will signpost later chapters. Part II is new, in which I have brought together topics relating to the geographical separation of powers, namely, devolution, local govern- ment and the European Union. Part III discusses the main institutions of gov- ernment, namely Parliament, the Crown, ministers, the civil service, the armed forces and police. Part IV concerns the citizen and the state, and includes an expanded treatment of judicial review of administrative action and human rights together with a more detailed discussion of freedom of expression, police powers and state secrecy. However the increasing legislation relating to public order, terrorism, immigration and state surveillance have made detailed treat- ment of particular civil liberties unrealistic as part of a general constitutional law course. For this reason I have concentrated in this edition upon gen- eral constitutional principles The case law is, as far as possible up to date to 10 April 2002.
I am grateful to many people who directly and indirectly helped me to produce this edition. These include, pre-eminently, Michael Haley of Keele University who prepared Chapter 21, Barry Hough of Southampton Institute who made substantial contributions to Chapters 3, 13 and 14 and Richard Mullender of Newcastle Law School who prepared Chapter 20. I am also indebted to Rui Verde of the Universidade Independente Lisbon who critiqued several chapters and made invaluable suggestions and to Ann Sinclair of Newcastle Law School who revised the bibliography. I am of course wholly responsible for the mistakes that remain.
JOHN ALDER
Newcastle, April 2002
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