INTERTEXTUALITY IN MANGA: THE INFINITE DIALOGUE BETWEEN WORD AND IMAGE
Hoang Huu Phuoc
College of Education, Hue University
Ngày Tòa soạn nhận được bài: ngày-tháng-năm;
ngày phản biện đánh giá: ngày-tháng-năm; ngày chấp nhận đăng: ngày-tháng-năm
ABSTRACT
Intertextuality in manga: the infinite dialogue between word and image
Apart from being cultural goods exports which target to fields of life, Japanese manga is said to be a new art through the combination of words literature and visual art. This research analyzes a number of popular manga to prove the value of manga in both art fields. Besides, the goal of our research was to identify some key features of manga‘s intertextual elements, focuses on the inner (multi-semiotic: verbal-visual intertextuality) and the outer (the influence of manga's soft power in Sinosphere).
Keywords: Manga, intertextuality, revisionism, literature, Sinosphere.
TÓM TẮT
Liên văn bản trong truyện tranh manga: cuộc đối thoại bấn tận giữa hình ảnh và từ ngữ Ngoài việc trở thành những món hàng văn hóa nhắm vào mọi lĩnh vực của đời sống, manga Nhật Bản được cho là một thể loại nghệ thuật mới, thông qua việc kết hợp giữa ngôn từ văn học và nghệ thuật thị giác. Nghiên cứu này phân tích một số manga phổ biến để chứng minh giá trị của manga trong cả hai ngành nghệ thuật. Bên cạnh đó, mục tiêu của bài viết là xác định một số đặc điểm chính của các yếu tố liên văn bản trong manga, tập trung vào các yếu tố bên trong (tính đa kí hiệu: liên văn bản giữa lời nói và hình ánh) và bên ngoài (ảnh hưởng của sức mạnh mềm của manga trong văn hóa quyển Đông Á).
Từ khóa: Manga, liên văn bản, phi tâm hóa, văn học, văn hóa quyển Đông Á.
1. Introduction
Although nowadays it is popularly believed that "contemporary culture is largely visual" (Pellegrini, 2003, p.15), research into the unity of images and words in literature study is still a taboo and has found much resistance in some more traditional approaches.
However, the creation of new theories has given us some ways to analyze emergent phenomena, and intertextuality theory as an example. Thence, the position of multi- semiotic genres (as new objects of literary studies) has just risen lately. In this article, using intertextuality theory to debate, we are interested in texts in multi-symbolic genres (like in Manga) that interact with each other to create meaning and the influence of Manga on other types of comics in the Sinosphere area.
2. Manga: from the multiple perspectives of intertextuality theory 2.1. Internal Manga's intertextuality
2.2.1. Manga: composition, research, and reception
Many manga writers stated that the composing manga process is like language arrangement. Osamu Tezuka (the pioneer, who was resembled as “Walt Disney of Japan”) highlighted: “I don’t consider them pictures… In reality, I’m not drawing. I’m writing a story with a unique type of symbol” (Schodt, 1983). That means manga is a creative behavior that appears simultaneously two processes to cross: writing and drawing. Manga is still an integrated art form - visual storytelling, indicating a change from textual literacy to visual literacy.
Researcher Bakhtin supposed that: "Any text is constructed as a mosaic of quotation;
anytext is the absorption and transformation of another" (Bakhtin, 1981, p.66). From that idea, Julia Kristeva coined the term "intertextuality". It should be noted that: “A text according to her is a permutation of texts, an intertextuality in the space of a given text, in which several utterances, taken from other texts, intersect and neutralize one another”
(Allen, 2000; p.35). Since then, “intertextuality” has been added more meanings by other researchers. Unavoidably, it has a deeper meaning than Julia Kristeva's explication in her research work “word, dialogue, and novel". In the 1980s, Genette remarkably mentioned a new term: “architextuality” (relationship of a text as part of a genre or genres). More concretely, in the 1990s, Michael Nerlich coined “iconotext”, which was defined as artwork created by verbal and visual signs together (or vice versa) in a direct or implied way. From my perspective, in this current time, “iconotext” is one of the best exactly terms to explain how text dialogues with other texts (like images) in the real world of discourse, such as comics or manga.
In the process of receiving manga, readers suppose that having a duplicate process running in their brain because manga can be considered "multimodal" texts. For example:
if readers want to understand a manga character, they have to recognize character's visual form (strength of painting) and psychological development (strength of literature), etc. and interpret meanings both of these.
From the evidence of researchers, authors, and readers, we can conclude that manga is "hybrid" of literature and visual art. In terms of literature, the salient features of poetics could be recognized clearly (e.g. characters, story plots, story conflicts, time, space, etc.).
Furthermore, manga converges fully elements of painting like color, line, mass, space, texture, composition, light, and shade, etc. The combination of these two art forms has created infinite dialogues between word and image in manga.
2.1.2. Manga: a form of multi-semiotic
The mutual invasion of both images and words have appeared in manga.
First, we want to discuss the transformation from manga iconography to meaning word. A typical example of the conversion/ transition from images to words is the artistic
conventions used in manga:
Table 1. The transformation from manga iconography to meaning word Ordinal
number Illustration & Explanation
1
Odd bubbles (like a mushroom shape) demonstrate that character is sighing (show either relaxation or madness). Source: Doraemon, Vol.2, page 49.
2
Facial features demonstrate a rage: smoke coming out of the character's head, twitching eyebrows/ eyelids, burned eyes, and gritted teeth.
Source: Doraemon - Vol.3, page 2.
3
A drooping head with a twisted line and one or more stars sign above is a typically sad reaction (sometimes dizziness). Source: Doraemon - Vol.5, page 26.
4
Sleeping is represented by a bubble coming out of the nose, especially bubble beats rhythmically as characters are snoring. Source: Doraemon - Vol.4, page 9.
These manga frames are considered as a figurative language. Certainly, they are not illustrations or extra factors. They play a major role to understand all the meaning of storytelling.
Moreover, we especially emphasize the role of shapes/ frames in relation to time.
To fully understand a frame in comics/ manga, we have to know where it is in the right position of the story flow, where frames are arranged sequentially. Unlike painting art, these frames are described in a continuous movement. They have a special relationship between the time of the story and the speed of frames. Painting can not do this, but literature can. In other words, they are images but express roles and meanings as literary words.
On the other hand, literary words in the manga also have certainly transformed itself into the trend of painting.
Table 2. The transformation from literary words to the shape of painting
Level ILLUSTRATION & EXPLANATION
1
The size and the weight of letters express the voice volume of characters.
Source: Ranma ½, vol.6, page 7.
2
Letters combine with images to create visual effects.
Source: Dr. Slump, vol.11, page 7.
3
Letters become an integral part of the image (as the visual elements rather than literary words).
Source: Doraemon, vol.12, page 147.
4
Letters completely become major elements of visual aesthetics in the frame.
Source: Dragon Ball, vol.42, page 17.
(in Japanese, it means that:
“Bwooom”).
This time, we want to emphasize the role of literary words in relation to the space layout. Undoubtedly, words have contributed to their visual role in the frame. We can see that the outside of word in manga has a special form, especially when we compare to Western comics (Western comic books mostly reach to level 1 and 2 in the above table).
To pay attention that literature often does not focus on the outside and the layout of words in space (that is the duty of visual art). This directional transformation creates unique effects. Not only does it add meaning (as the function of literary words), but also creates aesthetics (as the function of lines/ shapes in painting).
From all of the above evidence, we cannot deny that manga is both literary and non- literary. The mainstream of traditional literature studies is to research art of words, especially true "literary word". Intertextuality theory has another viewpoint on the nature of literature. It discovers moments when texts overcome their boundaries. It allows us to research "hybrid" arts like lyrics, film scripts or comics/manga similar to researching traditional literature. lnsulgrud and Allen said: "the motivation to study comics has been prompted less by the drive to reinterpret the medium as fine art but more to examine them
with a postmodern imperative, viewing them as cultural products where attitudes, ideology, and taste intersect" (lnsulgrud & Allen 24-25). We can see the interaction between the verbal and visual modalities, which are the basis for applying the intertextuality method, the opposite direction, only intertextuality method can fully and properly explain this phenomenon.
2.2. Intertextuality outside of Manga: The influence on other types of comics in Sinosphere.
Essentially, in the linguistically-related clue, manga (漫画) and manhwa (만화) in Japanese and Korean all mean comics respectively. The two words are originated from a Chinese word: "manhua" (漫画) (literally: "improvisational drawing"). These terms have been extremely popular and were spread since Japanese manga succeed on a global scale.
Noticeably, Japanese manga, Chinese manhua, and Korean manhwa were born in the dark period when their country was still at war or divided, and traditional culture was transformed by the foreign cultural invasions. Therefore, comic’s rising development promoted their national tradition and cultural identity, opposed the conspiracy of enemies vigorously through pop - culture. In the case of Japanese, manga faced with a deadly enemy - American comics. For Korean and Chinese, the enemy that their comics must fight is Japanese manga. So, the effect that exists until now is the influence of manga on both form and content in other genres. In terms of form, it is difficult to distinguish between manga and the others. Generally, characters often have flat faces, large eyes, tiny noses, and small mouths. In most cases, they have long and stylish hair for both boy and girl, partially covers their face. In addition to differences in content (we will discuss in more details later), one of the main differences is their layout. Others are read with the same direction as Western books (from left to right), meanwhile, we must read manga in
"backward" side.
- Manhwa - Korean comics: reception and creativity. In the 1900s, according to researchers Kim Nak Ho and Park In Ha, manhwa marked the birth with Lee Do Yong's posting in Daehan Minbo newspaper. However, this is also the period when Korea was occupied by Japan (from 1910 to 1945). Japan worked to control Korean culture. In the Korean comic market, there were two comic trends existing at that time. A part of the Japanese manga was introduced and propagandized by Japanese policies, the other was manhwa of the local people themselves. For this reason, the first and greatest feature of manhwa was the expression of both patriotic nationalism and cultural reception. In 1924, the Chosun - Ilbo published manhwa strips against the pro-Japanese faction. In the 1980s, manhwa had epic contents created to fight against US culture which was influencing Korean culture (typical of this genre is a classic work: "The terrifying mercenary baseball team" composed by Lee Hyun Se). From the 1990s until now, we had witnessed the
remarkable development of manhwa throughout the world, created a unique way - Korean style, and quite independent of manga. In terms of form, manhwa has started to go into the path of "formalist aesthetics", in a similar way Korean of movies. The storytelling trends of manhwa are comedy (authors: Park In-seo, Choi Sang), drama (authors: Ha Jin, Chungnyun), and harem (authors: Kim Dong Wha, Han Seung Won, Hwang Mina). In the contemporary art world, manhua learns the way how manga increased influence on popular culture: the adaptation to anime.
- Manhua - Chinese comics: resistant and nationalistic. The East Asian cultural sphere are considerably influenced and dominated by Han ethnicity. Therefore, in the field of comics, the birth of manhua (since the 7th centuries, in the Tang Empire, the earliest of the others) acted as a foundation to develop manhwa and manga later. However, despite having a long-standing root, manhua from ancient to contemporary times is no outstanding development. Modern Manhua even has resistance from the Chinese community itself.
This phenomenon can best be explained by China's cultural self-confidence. Chinese respect for traditional literary genres, which they created and influenced over Sinosphere.
Therefore, manhua has never been taken as "true art". Furthermore, when modern manhua appeared, China was being colonized by Japan empire. So they were against all cultural products from Japan, including Manga. Nevertheless, Manga has a long term history of development, enough to assert itself in East Asian reading culture. Therefore, from the achievement of Manga, manhua learned and partially applied.
Table 3. Some manhua in the development process
UNCLE CHOI Author: Hui Guan-
man Original run:
1958 – 1970s
OLD MASTER Q Author: A. Wong
Original run:
1962 – present
ORIENTAL HEROES Author: W. Yuk-long
Original run:
1970 – Present
SONG OF THE LONG MARCH
Author: Xia Da Original run:
2011 – Present - The painting style is
influenced by
traditional chinese silk
- The painting style is influenced by Western comics.
- The painting style is partially influenced by Manga and Western
- The painting style is
completely
painting.
- No speech balloons (written directly on frames)
- No speech balloons
comics.
- Appeared speech balloons (signs of professionalization comics)
influenced by Manga.
- Appeared speech balloons In terms of content, we realize that the storytelling trends of manhwa have developed in two completely different directions, but in line with Chinese tastes: Kung fu and contemporary culture. In terms of form, manhua receives a lot of advantages in creating character appearance, inspired by traditional cultural sources, not entirely dependent on manga.
- Vietnamese Comics: a warning about the dissolution of cultural identity. Because of being suitable for native tastes, manga became an "entertainment fever" in Vietnamese reading culture. In addition, it is considered as an effective diplomatic tool by the Japanese embassy. Manga accounts for 90% of the comic market in Vietnam. At the present time, most of the best-selling comics in Vietnam have the same style as manga (“Orange”,
“Birth and death Lamp”, “Angel tears”, etc.). It is difficult to identify the mainstream of both the content and form of comics in this country. According to many critics, the excessive development of manga warns Vietnamese comics which will become “the culture colony of manga”. A typical example is a literary character named "Dau", a Vietnamese farmer who was impoverished in the French colonial era (1937). There was a big controversy surrounding the adaptation of this literary source to comics.
Vietnamnet.vn, Vietnam's largest online newspaper, posted news: "When will Dau's appearance be unlike a Japanese schoolgirl?" as a warning about the loss of cultural identity in Vietnamese comics.
Dau in realistic illustrations Dau in the comics is adapted 3. Conclusion
Researching manga successfully will open the door to approach to contemporary cross-art forms. Intertextuality indicates that manga possess diversity discourses. These discourses are formatted by textual and pictorial elements and there have individual strengths, which affect greatly other cultural aspects.
Not only did manga influence on the other comics in Sinosphere, but also Western comics did. Manga is also deeply ingrained in most of sociocultural aspects, such as entertainment (movie, music, television, video game, sport, anime), politics - diplomacy, economy – culture, etc. and so on. In contemporary society, with the position of manga, Manga research is expected to explode and achieve many future achievements.
References
Allen, Graham. (2000). Intertextuality. London, Graham Allen presses
Bakhtin, Mikhail. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, Michael Holquist(ed.) and Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Kristeva, J. (1980). Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art.
Leon Roudiez. S (ed.), T. Gora et al (trans.). New York: Columbia University Press. p.66.
lngulsrud, John E. and Kate Allen (2009). Reading Japan Cool: Patterns of Mango Literacy and Discourse. Pkymouth, UK: Lexington Books
Pellegrini, T. (2003). Narrativa verbal e narrativa visual: positives approximate. In:
Pellegrini, T. et al. Literatura, cinema e televison. São Paulo: Ed. Senac Sao Paulo / Instituto Itaú Cultural.
Schodt, F. L. (1983). Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. New York:
Kodansha America Inc.
