By now, you may have a fairly clear answer to the following questions:
• How are you going to do the research?
• What is your strategy and approach?
• What techniques or methods are you going to use?
Or you may still be pretty vague. If you are in the latter position, you might wish to read around your subject more, and return to this point later. If you do have some ideas, think about them for a few minutes, and then try and succinctly summarize your intended research design using Exercise 3.6.
In reflecting on your plans, think about the details of what you are going to do for your research project. You may have said, for example, that you are going to read so many books or articles, complete a certain number of inter-views, administer so many questionnaires, or observe a group of people over a given period; or you may have mentioned more than one of these. Can you, however, say why you have chosen these particular methods? In other words, do you have a methodological perspective?
If you can answer the kinds of questions posed in Exercise 3.6, you already have, or are well on the way to having, a methodological perspective on your research. If you have some understanding of the range of possible research strategies, approaches and techniques available to you in undertaking research, you are going to be in a much better position to make an informed choice about which methods to use yourself, and how best to apply them.
Summary
Having read this chapter, you should:
• appreciate that you already have many everyday skills which will be of use to you in your research;
• have a good understanding of the different approaches, techniques and methods which are available to you as a small-scale researcher in the social sciences;
• have decided, or be closer to deciding, which methods you are going to use, and be able to justify that choice;
• have a clearer idea of your own methodological preferences.
Exercises
3.1 Is action research primarily or necessarily qualitative research? Give reasons for your answer. What research paradigm(s) do you think action research best fits within?
3.2 Using Yin’s typology – single or multiple; exploratory, descriptive or explanatory – how would you characterize the examples of case studies included in Box 3.10?
3.3 The police are experimenting with a zero tolerance policy against drunk and disorderly behaviour in selected town centres. How would you judge whether their approach had been successful? How does this strategy differ from action research?
3.4 Are the results of survey research necessarily more accurate than those arrived at using other approaches? Do surveys lend themselves to qualitative as much as quantitative research strategies?
3.5 At the beginning of the chapter ten everyday research skills were identi-fied. For each of these skills, give yourself a rating on a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high). Is your mix of skills appropriate for the research approaches or techniques you plan to adopt?
3.6 Note down the research methods you plan to use. What are their advan-tages and disadvanadvan-tages? What other methods might you use as alternatives?
Further reading
In this section, we list a selection of books that are of particular relevance to the topics discussed in this chapter, together with an indication of their con-tents. The list is extensive because a large number of books have been written on the subject of alternative research methods, their uses, advantages and disadvantages.
Abbott, P. and Sapsford, R. (1998) Research Methods for Nurses and the Caring Professions, 2nd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Aimed at readers who wish to evaluate and contribute to professional prac-tice. Includes practical exercises and examples. Methods covered include interviews, observations, controlled trials, surveys and secondary sources.
Also discusses reading and writing research.
Ader, H. J. and Mellenbergh, G. J. (eds) (1999) Research Methodology in the Life, Behavioural and Social Sciences. London: Sage.
The focus is exclusively on quantitative methods. Topics covered include experimental design, clinical trials, cross-sectional research, longitudinal analysis, measurement models, graphical modelling, structural equation modelling and meta-analysis.
Aldridge, A. and Levine, K. (2001) Surveying the Social World: Principles and Practice in Survey Research. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Oversight of the whole survey process, from planning, through sampling, data collection, design and analysis to presentation.
Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. (1998) Fundamentals of Educational Research, 2nd edn. London: Falmer Press.
An introductory text to the methods and sources of educational research.
Contents include literature surveys, research design, historical, descriptive, experimental, correlational, ethnographic, case study and policy research, and programme evaluation issues. Advice is given on surveys, questionnaire construction, interviewing and focus groups.
Atweh, B., Kemmis, S. and Weeks, P. (eds) (1998) Action Research in Practice:
Partnership for Social Justice in Education. London: Routledge.
A collection of stories from action research projects in schools and a university.
Balnaves, M. and Caputi, P. (2001) Introduction to Quantitative Research Methods:
An Investigative Approach. London: Sage.
Takes a detective approach to showing how quantitative methods can be used to solve real-life problems.
Bassey, M. (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Suggests how case study research can be a prime strategy for developing educational theory which illuminates policy and enhances practice.
Bechhofer, F. and Paterson, L. (2000) Principles of Research Design in the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.
Designed for researchers who know what they want to study, but have yet to decide how best to study it. Chapters discuss experiments, representative-ness, choice of locale and group, interviews, questionnaires, fieldwork, time, policy analysis, journalism and literature.
Bennett, J. (2003) Evaluation Methods in Research. London: Continuum.
Considers the variety of evaluation methods available and their use in practice.
Bernard, H. R. (2000) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Discusses the fundamentals of social research, preparation, interviewing, scaling, observation, qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Black, T. R. (1999) Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics. London: Sage.
This book is organized in six parts, covering research design; measure-ment design; the use of statistics; ex post facto, experimeasure-mental and quasi-experimental designs; non-parametric tests; and non-causal relationships.
Bowling, A. (2002) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and Health Services, 2nd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Five sections examine the scope of health research; the philosophy, theory and practice of research; quantitative research (two sections); and qualitative and combined research methods.
Brewer, J. D. (2000) Ethnography. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Offers guidelines for good practice, and advice on the collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of ethnographic data.
Brewerton, P. and Millward, L. (2001) Organizational Research Methods: A Guide for Students and Researchers. London: Sage.
Successive chapters address starting off, obtaining access, project design, data collection, sampling, assessing performance, data analysis and reporting findings.
Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Substantive text organized in four main parts, exploring social research strategies and designs, quantitative research, qualitative research, and other issues such as ethics, the Internet and breaking down the quantitative/quali-tative divide.
Burns, R. B. (2000) Introduction to Research Methods, 4th edn. London: Sage.
Organized in four parts, which focus on general issues, quantitative methods, qualitative methods and survey methods. Includes many self-testing questions for the reader to check their understanding.
Burton, D. (ed.) (2000) Research Training for Social Scientists: A Handbook for Postgraduate Researchers. London: Sage.
A substantial text, covering philosophy, ethical and legal issues, getting
started, qualitative methods and analysis, survey research, quantitative analysis and finishing off.
Coglan, D. and Brannick, T. (2004) Doing Action Research in your own Organiza-tion, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
Covers theory and methods, politics and ethics, the role of the researcher and writing up.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education, 5th edn. London: Routledge.
Covering the range of methodological approaches in social research, this text draws on examples from predominantly school-based education.
Chapters include discussion of triangulation, role-playing, interviewing, personal constructs, action research, case study, developmental research, ex-post facto research and experimental designs.
Costello, P. (2003) Action Research. London: Continuum.
Short text covering planning, data collection and analysis, and reportage of action research projects.
Cournoyer, D. and Klein, W. (2000) Research Methods for Social Work. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Topics discussed include scientific thinking, critical reasoning, ethics, research questions and design, measurement, sampling, numerical and non-numerical data collection and analysis.
Cresswell, J. W. (2002) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage.
Which to choose: qualitative or quantitative approaches? How do you write a journal article? These are two of the issues addressed in this text.
Davies, C. A. (1998) Reflexive Ethnography. London: Routledge.
A practical and comprehensive guide to ethnographic methods. Engages with significant issues associated with modernism/postmodernism, subject-ivity/objectivity and self/other.
de Vaus, D. (2001) Research Design in Social Research. London: Sage.
Organized in five main parts, looking first at research design in general, and then focusing on experimental, longitudinal, cross-sectional and case study designs.
de Vaus, D. A. (2002) Surveys in Social Research, 5th edn. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
With the novice researcher mainly in mind, this text discusses how to plan, conduct and analyse social surveys. Combines questionnaire construction and administration, sampling and formulating research questions with techniques for coding and developing indicators and statistical methods.
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (2002) Management Research: An Introduction, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
Examines both the philosophy and politics of management research, and the application of qualitative and quantitative methods.
Evans, J. (2005) How to do Research: A Psychologist’s Perspective. London:
Routledge.
Covers research design, hypothesis testing, statistical inference, theory development, supervision and communication.
Fetterman, D. M. (1998) Ethnography: Step by Step, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
How does one manage a mountain of data and make meaningful state-ments? These are the key questions addressed by this book. Chapters cover anthropological concepts, methods and techniques, ethnographic equip-ment, analysis, writing and ethics.
Field, D., Clark, D., Corner, J. and Davis, C. (eds) (2000) Researching Palliative Care. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Aimed at those involved in palliative care who wish to pursue research. This book identifies key methods, provides examples of issues and practices, and discusses related methodological and ethical issues.
Fink, A. (2005) How to Conduct Surveys: A Step-by-Step Guide, 3rd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Does pretty much what the title suggests.
Flick, U. (1998) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. London: Sage.
Deals with how to construct and interpret verbal, visual and observational data, with practical guidance on documentation, analysis, coding and cate-gorization. Lots of examples, summaries and suggestions for further reading.
Flick, U., von Kardoff, E. and Steinke, I. (eds) (2004) A Companion to Qualitative Research. London: Sage.
Covers theory and practice, with contributions from researchers in Europe and North America.
Fowler, F. (2001) Survey Research Methods, 3rd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Aims to improve question design, survey administration, response rates and analysis.
Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002) Research Methods for Managers, 3rd edn. London:
Sage.
Chapters cover theory, experimental design, quasi-experiments and action research, survey research, ethnography and methodological choices.
Gillham, B. (2000) Case Study Research Methods. London: Continuum.
Chapters discuss principles and practice, including evidence, electronic material, observation, interviewing, quantitative data and physical artefacts.
Goldblatt, D. (2000) Knowledge and the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.
Provides an introduction to key philosophical and epistemological issues in the social sciences. Addresses both positivist and interpretative methodolo-gies through a comparison of contemporary debates about social change.
Gorard, S. (2001) Quantitative Methods in Educational Research: The Role of Numbers Made Easy. London: Continuum.
Emphasizes the selection of appropriate techniques, and understanding their strengths and weaknesses. Discusses secondary data, surveys and controlled trials, and their analysis.
Gorard, S. and Taylor, C. (2004) Combining Methods in Educational and Social Research. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Practical guidance on how to combine quantitative and qualitative methods, including discussion of triangulation, life histories and design studies.
Greenwood, D. J. and Levin, M. (1998) Introduction to Action Research: Social Research for Social Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The three parts of the book consider the nature of action research, science, epistemology and practice, and varieties of action research praxis.
Hakim, C. (2000) Research Design: Successful Designs for Social Economic Research.
London: Routledge.
A practical overview of the issues involved in the design of social and economic research, covering both theoretical and policy related research.
Hayes, N. (2000) Doing Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing Data.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Organized in two parts: ‘Gathering data’ addresses techniques such as experi-ments, observational studies, questionnaires, interviews, case studies and documentary analysis; ‘Making sense of data’ examines different methods of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Johnson, P. and Duberley, J. (2000) Understanding Management Research.
London: Sage.
Covers the principal epistemological debates in social research, including positivism, postmodernism, critical theory, pragmatism and more reflexive approaches.
Jupp, V., Davies, P. and Francis, P. (eds) (2000) Doing Criminological Research.
London: Sage.
Thirteen chapters examine issues in planning, doing and experiencing research in criminology. Topics covered include interviews with female prisoners, realistic evaluation of criminal justice, the measurement of crime, and understanding the politics of criminological research.
Krueger, R. K. and Casey, M. A. (2000) Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research, 3rd edn. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
For those interested in marketing and gauging public opinion, this text takes the reader through the processes of conducting focus group interviews and analysing the results.
Kumar, R. (2005) Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
Organized in terms of eight organizational steps: formulating a research problem, conceptualizing a research design, constructing an instrument for data collection, selecting a sample, writing a research proposal, collecting data, processing data and writing a research report.
Laws, S., Harper, C. and Marcus, R. (2003) Research for Development: A Practical Guide. London: Sage.
Aimed at those managing or doing research for development. Coverage includes writing a research brief, managing research staff or consultants, engaging stakeholders, models of supervision, evaluating research results and promoting research findings for impact. Many international examples.
Lee, R. M. (2000) Unobtrusive Methods in Social Research. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Focuses on research methods other than surveys and interviews, including found data, captured data (i.e. observation), running records, personal documents and the Internet.
Linkogle, S. and Lee-Treweek, G. (2000) Danger in the Field. London: Routledge.
An analysis of the potential pitfalls in qualitative research in a variety of research settings.
Litosseliti, L. (2003) Using Focus Groups in Research. London: Continuum.
Short guide to the planning, conduct and analysis of focus groups.
Marshall, C. and Rossman, G. (1999) Designing Qualitative Research, 3rd edn.
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Introduces students to the processes of qualitative research. Includes sec-tions on data collection, data management, analysis and resource allocation decisions.
Mason, J. (2002) Qualitative Researching, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
Focuses on the practice and process of qualitative research. Chapters con-sider research design, the generation of data through interviewing, observa-tion and documents, sampling and selecobserva-tion, and the organizaobserva-tion and analysis of data.
Maxim, P. S. (1999) Quantitative Research Methods in the Social Sciences. New York: Oxford University Press.
Reviews general statistical theory and methods, and explores the problems that quantitative social scientists face in conducting research. Topics dis-cussed include scientific method, theory formalization, causality, statistical inference, sampling, experimental design, measurement theory and errors, and hypothesis testing.
Maxwell, J. (2005) Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Attempts to move away from the conventional, linear approach to design by offering a flexible and user-friendly approach.
May, T. (2001) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, 3rd edn. Bucking-ham: Open University Press.
The text explores issues of perspective, social theory, values and ethics. Data collection methods such as official statistics, questionnaires, interviewing, participant observation, documentary sources and comparative research are included. Questions at the end of each chapter are designed to deepen understanding and reflection.
May, T. and Williams, M. (eds) (1998) Knowing the Social World. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Ten contributions examine the relations between philosophy, social theory and empirical research, how we can claim to ‘know’ the social world, and what the properties of the social world and their implications might be.
McIntyre, L. (2005) Need to Know: Social Science Research Methods. Boston:
McGraw-Hill.
Broad coverage of research design, experiments, survey research, unobtrusive methods and qualitative research. Text includes exercises, anecdotes, glossary and appendices.
McNeill, P. and Chapman, S. (2005) Research Methods, 3rd edn. London:
Routledge.
Written by two sociologists, this text examines surveys, experiments, comparative methods, ethnography, secondary data and values.
McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2006) All You Need to Know About Action Research.
London: Sage.
Organized around the what, why and how questions.
McNiff, J., Whitehead, J. and Lomax, P. (1998) You and Your Action Research Project. London: Routledge.
Offers practical guidance on doing an action research project as part of an award-bearing course.
McQueen, R. and Knussen, C. (2002) Research Methods for Social Science: A Practical Introduction. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
Does pretty much what the title suggests.
Mikkelsen, B. (2005) Methods for Development Work and Research: A New Guide for Practitioners, 2nd edn. New Delhi: Sage.
Emphasizes participatory methods, development studies, monitoring and evaluation.
Morton-Cooper, A. (2000) Action Research in Health Care. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Considers the ethos and principles of action research, strategies and advice for practitioners and researchers, giving support to those engaged in action research, and critiques of action research.
Neuman, W. L. (2000) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 4th edn. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Comprehensive introduction organized in five parts: foundations, planning and preparation, quantitative data collection and analysis, qualitative data collection and analysis, and social research and communication with others.
Partington, D. (ed.) (2002) Essential Skills for Management Research. London:
Sage.
Organized in three parts, covering philosophy and research, research processes, and approaches and techniques.
Payne, G. and Payne, J. (2004) Key Concepts in Social Research. London: Sage.
Sections on concepts – such as qualitative and quantitative approaches, Internet polling and visual methods – include definitions, key points, examples and further reading.
Plummer, K. (2001) Documents of Life 2: An Invitation to Critical Humanism, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
This revised edition considers recent developments in the use of life stories and other personal documents in social research. Issues examined include the emergence of an auto/biographical society, writing and narrative, memory and truth, and humanism.
Punch, K. (2003) Survey Research: The Basics. London: Sage.
A practical guide focusing on small-scale quantitative research.
Punch, K. F. (2005) Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, 2nd edn. London: Sage.
Comprehensive introduction, which covers developing models for empirical research, the logic of quantitative and qualitative research (design, data collection and analysis), mixing methods, evaluation and writing.
Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. (eds) (2006) Handbook of Action Research. London:
Sage.
Thirty-two chapters organized in terms of the groundings, practices, exemplars and skills of action research.
Ritchie, J. and Lewis, J. (eds) (2003) Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage.
Covers theoretical, methodological and practical issues.
Robson, C. (2000) Small-scale Evaluation: Principles and Practice. London: Sage.
Designed for those undertaking small-scale evaluations for the first time.
Chapters deal with the nature and purpose of evaluation, collaboration, ethical and political issues, design, analysis, practicalities and communicat-ing findcommunicat-ings.
Rossi, P. H. and Freeman, H. E. (1993) Evaluation: A Systematic Approach, 5th edn. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
For those concerned with the utility and effectiveness of social intervention programmes, this text is designed to outline appropriate methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation. The text contains discussion of diagnosis, measurement and monitoring, with numerous examples from evaluation research.
Ruane, J. (2004) Essentials of Research Methods: A Guide to Social Research.
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Includes discussion of ethics, validity, measurement, causal analysis, design strategies, sampling, questionnaires, interviews, field research and statistics.
Ruspini, E. (2002) Introduction to Longitudinal Research. London: Routledge.
Considers characteristics, data collection techniques, problems and major analytical techniques.
Sapsford, R. (1999) Survey Research. London: Sage.
Considers the nature of survey research, sampling, methods of data collec-tion, tabular analysis, correlacollec-tion, regression and factor analysis, analysis of variance, using existing data sources and reporting results.
Schostak, J. F. (2000) Understanding, Designing and Conducting Qualitative Research in Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Offers a strategy focusing on the project as the organizing framework that ensures that the methods chosen are appropriate to the subject of study.
Seale, C. (ed.) (2004) Social Research Methods: A Reader. London: Routledge.