I. Introduction
Since lifelong learning has been of high interest of policymakers and educators, this educational trend has promoted many solutions to enhance students’
self – learning management. The research on learner autonomy has been thrived for the last 30 years (Dang, 2012). The concept of learner autonomy not only catches the attention of Western scholars (Aoki and Smith, 1999, cited in Pham, 2018) but also takes the attention of Asian researchers such as Chan, 2003 and Little, 1996. However, research on learner autonomy in Vietnamese context is still limited. Some prominent researchers studying learner autonomy in Vietnamese context are Nguyen (2008, 2009), Dang (2010), and Nguyen (2014).
These studies aim at fostering learner autonomy at tertiary levels by investigating teachers and students’
belief towards learner autonomy and practice.
The positive correlation between learner autonomy and language proficiency has been proved in a number of studies (Ezzi, 2018; Nguyen, 2009; Deng, 2007; Zhang and Li, 2004). Although these studies were implemented with participants from different contexts, they all showed positive correlation between learner autonomy and language proficiency. There is substantial difference between the degree of learner autonomy among different levels of English proficiency; meanwhile among groups of relatively same level of proficiency, there is no significant difference in the degree of learner
autonomy. In other words, the more autonomous learners are, the higher proficiency of English they achieve.
Textbooks play an important role in language teaching. Beside the interation between teachers and learners and the interaction between students and students, the interaction between students and materials is an important part of language acquisition.
Textbooks serve as one of the major sources of input of learners in and outside classrooms (Richards, 2001). Thus, students have the most chance to be familiar with the concept of autonomy if it is included in the textbooks. Graves (2000, cited in Gak, 2011) stated that “the textbook is a book used as a standard source of information for formal study of a subject and an instrument for teaching and learning.” I am of the opinion that textbooks should not only include a source of information but also offer favorable conditions for learner autonomy to take place.
Despite the growing interest in learner autonomy, the role of textbooks in promoting learner autonomy receives little attention from researchers.
II. Learner autonomy
1. Definitions and versions of learner autonomy 1.1. Models of learner autonomy
There has been a substantial amount of studies which attempt to set out models for measuring learner autonomy. Most of the research has agreed on some principles of learner autonomy, namely determining goals and objectives, defining content, determining learning strategies and evaluating learning process.
Some of the studies have added other principles
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEXTBOOKS
TẠP CHÍ THIẾT BỊ GIÁO DỤC - SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT THÁNG 8/2021 ●
55
of learner autonomy. This section discusses some models of learner autonomy that have been studied so far.
Below are the models of learner autonomy developed by Nunan (1997). This model of learner autonomy concerns with five levels of developing learner autonomy.
Table 1.1: Five-level model of learner autonomy (Nunan, 1997, p. 195)
Level Learner Action Content Process
1 Awareness
Learners are made aware of the pedagogical goals and content of the materials they are using.
Learners identify strategy implications of pedagogical tasks and identify their own preferred learning styles/strategies.
2 Involvement
Learners are involved in selecting their own goals from a range of alternatives on offer.
Learners make choices among a range of options
3 Intervention
Learners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and contents of the learning program.
Learners modify/
adapt tasks.
4 Creation Learners create their own goals and objectives.
Learners create their own tasks.
5 Transcendence
Learners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of classroom learning and the world.
Learners become teachers and researchers.
Although this model provides clear stages with expected outcomes and processes for the development of learner autonomy, some may not progress through the order suggested. Some may be able to create their own tasks but cannot make choices within a range of options or identify their own preferred learning styles.
Another model is proposed by Benson (2001), which focuses on three control areas, namely control over learning management, control over learning content and control over cognitive processing.
Three areas of control are correlated and support one another. For instance, if learners successfully control over their learning content, then they can adopt appropriate learning strategies. Although Benson’s theoretical framework is well-generalized and systematic, it may not be concrete enough and create some difficulties in analyzing the degree of learner autonomy integrated in textbooks.
This research is in the attempt to elaborate attributes of learner autonomy on the basis of four presented perspectives so that learner autonomy can be measured and assessed more effectively.
Table 1.2. Learner autonomy and attributes Perspectives Attributes References Technical
perspective Self-selecting situational contexts (pace, time and place)
Smith (2008) Nguyen (2009) Psychological
perspective Self - determining goals and objectives,
Self - determining learning strategies, Self - selecting materials Self - evaluating Self - reflecting
Little (2003) Nguyen (2009) Dang (2012)
Political – critical perspective
Self - selecting contents Dang (2012)
Socio-cultural
perspective Performing learning tasks independently after receiving scaffolding
Bruner (1985, cited in Ellis, 1997)
Based on this set of attributes of autonomous learners, this research attempts to provide a criteria checklist for textbook evaluation as follows.
Table 1.3. Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of textbooks on promoting learner autonomy Perspectives Attributes Criteria for
evaluating textbooks Technical
perspective Self-selecting situational contexts (pace, time and place)
Provide favorable condition and resources for learners to study at their own pace, time and place Psychological
perspective Self - determining
goals and
objectives
Raise learners’
awareness of their goals
Allow learners to identify their strengths and weaknesses
Self - determining learning strategies
Make students aware of different learning strategies Allow learners to select their own learning strategies Self-motivation Allow learners
to express their feelings
Allow learners to engage in learning activities by drawing connection to their background knowledge and preference Self - selecting
materials Provide learners with a variety of resources
Allow learners to look for extra resources
Allow learners to produce their own materials
Self – evaluating Provide self-assessment checklists or tasks to assess what they have learned.
Self – reflecting Provide reflective activities for learners to reflect on their learning Political
– critical perspective
Self - selecting
contents Allow learners to choose their own content of learning Allow learners to create learning content
Socio-cultural
perspective Performing learning tasks independently after receiving scaffolding
Allow learners to engage in meaningful interaction
Provide scaffolding III. Textbooks and learner autonomy
1. The role of textbooks on promoting learner autonomy
Although the concept learner autonomy has attracted much attention from scholars, the role of textbooks on learner autonomy has been little researched. It may be the result of previous studies indicating that textbooks may hinder learner autonomy. Richards (2001) claimed that one of the disadvantages of textbooks is that they fail to meet
learner needs. It is because of the fact that most textbooks determine the learning content and learning progression, thus, it cannot meet learner needs.
Nevertheless, Cohen (2003) indicated the potential of textbooks on promoting learner autonomy. Cohen (2003) suggested that textbooks can include explicit combining with implicit strategies training, which allows students to continue using these strategies in their learning process. Reinders & Balcikanli (2011) revealed that textbooks can play an important role in promoting students’ self-directed learning as they can draw students’ attention on learning process and promote students’ reflection on their own progress. Therefore, textbooks can undoubtedly play an important role in developing learner autonomy, not preventing learner autonomy.
2. Research on textbooks and learner autonomy There has been not much research on the degree of learner autonomy integrated in textbooks. However, there are some studies on this area that provides positive results on the effectiveness of textbooks in the promotion of learner autonomy. Kong (2014) has recently studied the principles of learner autonomy included in two sets of textbooks commonly used in primary schools in Hong Kong. The study combined both qualitative and quantitative method, providing in-depth understanding on textbooks selected. The data are from three sources: analysis of the textbooks in reference to theoretical framework, interview with teachers and lesson observations. Although this study could be more convincing by analyzing students’ opinions because students are the ones who directly contact with textbooks and their opinions are of importance in investigating how textbooks actually have impact on students’ self – directed learning, it makes significant contribution in drawing the connection between theoretical framework and actual practice of textbooks in promoting learner autonomy. Reinders and Balcikanli (2011) has studied five widely used English language course books in reference to eight stages in the self-directed learning, namely “identifying needs”,
“setting goals”, “planning learning”, “selecting resources”, “selecting learning strategies” ,
“practice”, “monitoring progress” and “assessment and revision”. The study found that “selecting learning strategies” and “monitoring progress”
were the only two stages integrated in some of the textbooks.
IV. Implications for further research
TẠP CHÍ THIẾT BỊ GIÁO DỤC - SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT THÁNG 8/2021 ●
57
There has not been any research on learner autonomy and textbooks that have been done in Vietnamese context. Most research on learner autonomy in Vietnam has focused on students and teachers’ belief and how learner autonomy is practiced in higher education level (Nguyen, 2008, 2009; Dang, 2010; Le, 2013; Nguyen, 2014).
Moreover, most research on learner autonomy in Vietnamese context so far has been focussed on tertiary level (Nguyen, 2008, 2009; Dang, 2010; Le, 2013) and there is little research studying learner autonomy on secondary and high school levels. This preference can be explained by the fact that tertiary education requires students to be more actively engaged in their own learning, determining their own goal and objectives, monitoring their own learning process and self-assessing their learning. However, learner autonomy is a result of training process rather than an inborn capacity, so the more training learners have the better their learning will proceed.
Thus, promoting learner autonomy from early stage of education plays important role in forming autonomous learners. Much research is still needed to be done in order to fill this gap.
The correlation between learner autonomy and English proficiency proved in much research and the lack of research focusing on the role of textbooks and learner autonomy has raised implications for further research to fill in the gap. Research needs to be done to investigate the effectiveness of textbooks on building and boosting learner autonomy from their early ages. These studies are expected to make great contribution to material development and syllabus designing.
1. Definitions of learner autonomy and differ-ent perspectives perceived towards learner auton-omy According to Holec (1981) as cited in Dang (2012), learner autonomy is “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”. This early but influential definition has been cited in most paper on learner autonomy. The term “ability” refers to metacognitive knowledge of learning; in order to have such ability, learners are supposed to develop their own learning strategies, “determine the objectives”, “defining the contents” (language awareness), deciding context in which learning takes place (time, place and pace of learning), and evaluating the learning process. These are the characteristics of an autonomous learner claimed by Holec (1981). Learner autonomy is then
defined as the ability of learning to learn (Wenden, 1991); or the ability to take control of learning activities (Cotterall, 1995). Among these definitions, the definition given by Holec (1981) is the most successful definition in covering the core feature of learner autonomy.
Unlike Holec who examined the features of an autonomous learner in terms of five components mentioned above, Benson (2001) as cited in Nguyen (2009) studied this in terms of areas of control.
Benson introduced three broad areas of controls, these are, “control over learning management”
(technical perspective), “control over cognitive processing” (psychological perspective) and “control over learning content” (political perspective). Oxford (2003) indicates that Benson does not take socio-cultural perspective into consideration and this is the fourth perspective towards learner autonomy that has been investigated so far.
The four perspectives are technical perspective, psychological perspective, socio-cultural perspective and political-critical perspective (Oxford, 2003).
Technical perspective emphasizes the importance of physical settings. The extreme version of technical perspective requires learners to learn alone without any assistance from teachers or tutors. This extreme version seems not to be compatible with Holec’s definition. Learner autonomy is defined as the capacity to take responsibility of their own learning, which does not mean studying alone. There are some attempts to create other created environment that offers favorable conditions for learner autonomy to take place, one of which is self-access center (Dang, 2012). Learners’ mental and emotional characteristics are taken into account by psychological perspective (Oxford, 2003).
References
1. Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy:
Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195-205.
2. Chan, V. (2003). Autonomous language learning: The teachers’ perspectives. Teaching in higher education, 8(1), 33-54.
3. Cohen, A. (2003). Strategy Training for Second Language Learners. Retrieved from http://www.
ericdigests.org/2004-4/language.htm
4. Dang, T. T. (2010). Learner Autonomy in EFL Studies in Vietnam: A Discussion from Socio-cultural Perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 3-9.
1. Đặt vấn đề
Bài kiểm tra TOEIC để đánh giá khả năng sử dụng tiếng Anh của người học trong môi trường làm việc quốc tế. Trước đây tại Việt Nam, TOEIC chủ yếu được biết đến dưới dạng bài thi đánh giá hai kỹ năng nghe và đọc (Listening and Reading). Ngày nay, bài thi TOEIC thêm hai kỹ năng nói và viết (Speaking and Writing) ngày càng trở nên phổ biến hơn. Trong đó, bài thi TOEIC Writing là thách thức không nhỏ cho không ít thí sinh.
Bài viết cung cấp một số biện pháp thực hiện bài thi TOEIC Writing và một số mô hình hữu dụng khi xử lý các câu hỏi trong đó. Bằng cách giúp người học thực hiện tốt hơn các yêu cầu của phần thi này, bài viết nhằm góp phần tăng cường kỹ năng viết, từ đó hỗ trợ nâng cao năng lực giao tiếp tiếng Anh của người học.
2. Nội dung nghiên cứu
Bài thi TOEIC Writing bao gồm 8 câu hỏi chia làm 3 phần. Điểm lưu ý chung là thí sinh cần viết rõ ràng, ngắn gọn, thực hiện những nhiệm vụ theo chỉ dẫn và tận dụng tối đa thời gian cho phép.
2.1. Phần 1: Questions 1 - 5 (Write a sentence based on a picture)
Thí sinh được yêu cầu sử dụng các từ đã cho để viết câu mô tả tranh. Mỗi câu hỏi tương ứng một bức tranh.
2.1.1. Những bức hình trong loại câu hỏi 1-5 có thường liên quan đến những hoạt động thường ngày
Ví dụ:
- Traveling
- Doing office work - Enjoying leisure time - Meeting with colleagues - Banking
- Eating at home or at a restaurant - Shopping
- Using public transportation 2.1.2. Những điểm lưu ý a. Về ngữ pháp và từ vựng
Nắm vững cấu trúc cơ bản để viết câu tiếng Anh chuẩn. Để làm tốt câu 1-5, thí sinh phải viết được câu đúng ngữ pháp, mạch lạc và phù hợp với bức tranh.
Cần lựa chọn đúng cấu trúc câu và thì thời của động từ. Ngoài hai thì được hiển thị trong bảng dưới đây, thí sinh thường sẽ không phải sử dụng các thì động từ khác cho Câu hỏi 1-5. Bảng này giúp thí sinh lựa chọn thì thời chính xác cho câu trả lời.
Xác định vai của từ. Khi một trong các từ được cung cấp là danh từ, trước tiên hãy xác định xem từ đó đóng vai trò chủ ngữ hay tân ngữ của câu.
Cần sử dụng cả HAI từ trên màn hình trong câu hỏi. Nếu quên sử dụng một trong những từ, thí sinh sẽ nhận được điểm số thấp hơn. Ngoài ra, lưu ý chỉ được viết MỘT câu.
Grammar for basic descriptions of photos Photo
types Verb tenses Sentence
constructions Examples Photos
with people in them
Present
continuous Subject + verb
+ object ● The men are eating pancakes.
● The woman is talking to the clerk.
* Học viện Công nghệ Bưu chính Viễn thông